Works by a plethora of 20^th-century Spanish thinkers, such as Miguel de Unamuno, José Ortega y Gasset, and Salvador de Madariaga, have played an important role in the history of world philosophy. Philosophical thought in Spain has always been contemplative, characterized by polemical sharpness of judgment and a special rhetorical style. Spanish philosophers did not propose any doctrine as dogma, nor did they seek to create schools; still, their concepts had a holistic approach to the evaluation of phenomena, which is now commonly referred to as interdisciplinarity. Their style of philosophical thinking bore the hallmarks of psychological, sociological, and hermeneutic analysis when it comes to revealing the existential essence of events. This style was marked by a philological depth of understanding of the relationship between language and national consciousness. The Spanish fully inherited the interest in language and speech, which were considered a form of art in antiquity, and lent new perspectives on language in the first editions of Spanish grammar published in late 15^th century (the first Spanish grammar was published by Antonio de Nebrija in 1492). Speech as an art and a reflection of the national peculiarities of a people’s life, its instinct (intuition) are ideas in the works of the 16^th-century Spanish humanists Juan Luis Vives and Juan de Valdés that were centuries ahead of the European linguistic thought. Language philosophy in Spain in the 19^th century developed in line with German idealism, which had the strongest influence on Spanish philosophy in general.

The philosophical thought concerning language acquired a new and truly original dimension in the works of Miguel de Unamuno and José Ortega y Gasset, as it gained an ethnopsychological element and took on an existentialist approach to the description of the facts of language and speech production. The views of these philosophers on language manifested themselves in their art as well. The aim of this study is to show how the existentialist dimension of the philosophical thought of Miguel de Unamuno, José Ortega y Gasset, and Salvador de Madariaga helped to reveal the profound mechanisms of speech production, determined the dominant features of national linguistic consciousness, and demonstrated the interdependence of speech behavior and national character. The author uses metalinguistic, psycholinguistic, and ethnosociological methods in the analysis and interpretation of works by these authors.

The article, based on the opposition «own — alien» immanent to the civilizational discourse, examines the national-cultural specificity of Latin American identity, which integrates a set of meanings that structure the value space and serve as the basis for behavioral reactions and actions. The aim of the research is to compare the cognitive-pragmatic features of the ethnonyms latinoamericano/latin, hispanic in the discursive context of the Latin American and Anglo-Saxon civilizational platforms. For a correct consideration of the conceptual and pragmatic load of ethnonyms as a reflection of the mentality and linguistic picture of the world in the conditions of opposite civilizational spaces, the author uses a systemic approach based on the methods of conceptual, linguacultural, discursive, semantic, interpretive analysis, as well as the method of historical and sociolinguistic assessment. The research findings indicate that «Unity in diversity» (unidad en la diversidad) is an essential characteristic of the national worldview of Latin American countries. Diversity as a dominant element ensures the integrity of Latin American sociality with all the richness of cultural traditions and ways of being, born from the synthesis of the Autochthonous, Iberian and African civilization matrix, including the complex factor of miscegenation. At the same time, Latin American civilizational determination is devoid of the hierarchical superiority of some patterns of thinking and perception over others. The ethnonym latinoamericano functions as a key concept of the «inclusive» type of civilizational Latin American discourse, which is based on a fundamental understanding of the alien as alien, without making it one’s own, but preserving through the dominant of diversity a deep civilizational code shared in all countries of the region. In the modern world, Latin American identity is in a state of constant transformation, which is associated, among other reasons, with migration from Latin American countries to the United States. In the context of the Anglo-Saxon civilizational paradigm, the ethnonyms Latin/Hispanic inevitably become part of the «exclusive» civilizational discourse, which contrasts one’s own with the alien, and does not integrate it into the Anglo-Saxon model of civilizational identity. The perception of a Latin American as a socially determined personality of a migrant-resident, who has different civilizational characteristics (culture, religion, language, etc.), profoundly opposite to the values and traditions of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants, who make up the ethno-confessional core of the US population, provides grounds for considering the «foreigner» not as an ally, but as an adversary, often an enemy (crime, drug trafficking, illegal labor). Within the framework of the Anglo-Saxon civilizational paradigm, the ethnonym latinoamericano in its Americanized variants latin/hispanic loses its universal semantic unity because the bonds of civilizational, ethnic and national-state identity lose their strength in an alien civilizational context due to their vulnerability, leading to a separation of these concepts.

«The Colloquium of Twenty-Four Rustic Galicians», a text written by a Benedictine monk Martín Sarmiento in 1746, is an important source of information about the everyday life of Galicians in the first half of the 18^th century that has a special place in Galician culture and beyond. It is the first text of the modern era written entirely in Galician. For the first time in history the author defends the value and independence of the Galician language in the Spanish-language glossary written for «The Colloquium». This approach is unique because during the so-called «Dark Ages» of Galician literature («Séculos escuros», from mid-15^th to early 19^th centuries), Galician was almost entirely replaced by Spanish in writing. Martín Sarmiento bases his work on his childhood memories, his travels across Galicia, documents from monastery archives and news he received from his Galician relatives. Sarmiento seeks to present reliable facts in the text, still he partly idealizes this area of Spain and its inhabitants. Sarmiento pays particularly close attention to portraying a low-class Galician of the time and describing their life, labour, leisure and traditional values. Martín Sarmiento’s writings were almost completely unknown to subsequent generations of Galician intellectuals.

This text has hardly been studied by Russian researchers, hence the author of this investigation aims to analyze its content using descriptive and cultural-historical methods, as well as to identify the particularities of how Galicians’ everyday life is represented in the text. This approach corresponds to the current cultural debate regarding the studies of how to describe the formation of the Spanish national character. In the eighteenth-century text we can find origins of the existing stereotypical image of Galicia, which continues to predominate in the «collective imaginary».

The poetic texts of Borges, dedicated to everyday life and the image of Buenos Aires, clearly demonstrate the side of the great Argentine writer’s work, which for many remains unnoticed due to his established literary reputation. This article provides an analysis not of Borges the bookworm or Borges the librarian, who talks about literature and philosophy, immersing the reader in sophisticated mystifications, but of Borges the emotional, attentive to details, landscape and people that actually made up his everyday life. This new point of view is relevant, since modern Borges studies focus predominantly on either intertextual connections (the model of this kind of studies is «Borges and others»), or textual aspects, or provide a philosophical analysis of his works. The purpose of the article is to demonstrate how Borges uses the attributes of everyday life in his poetry. The poems used as material are: «Sala vacía» from the book «Fervor de Buenos Aires» (1923), «Fundación mítica de Buenos Aires» from «Cuaderno San Martín» (1929), two poems entitled «Buenos Aires» («El otro, el mismo», 1964), «Buenos Aires» («Elogio de la sombra», 1969)), «Buenos Aires, 1899» («Historia de la noche», 1977) and «Buenos Aires» («La cifra», 1981). In the early texts by Borges, the city has a more symbolic meaning, serving as a mediator between the real and the metaphysical. In his later poems, written during his blindness, Borges constructs an image of the Buenos Aires of his youth, paying particular attention to everyday life in the 1920s–40s. In essence, Old Buenos Aires is a lost paradise for Borges, which he himself confirms in his later texts.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s novel is about love and cholera, as the title suggests. However, the plot is far from either. Garcia Marquez created a life story of two characters that slowly passes in a provincial Colombian town on the bank of the Magdalena River at a time of a cholera epidemic. He showed how truly incredible miracles can happen in the «quiet story» of everyday life. Love in the novel is not a loud drama, but a titanic effort of the soul against the despondency of everyday life, the «cholera» of the time and conventions, in which the characters live for decades. Everyday life is the contradictory duality of life itself, which is inextricably linked to death: life can de joyful or sad, happy or unhappy, successful or unsuccessful. Social dichotomies of the time, such as poverty vs. richness, traditional vs. bourgeois lifestyles, rational vs. irrational actions permeate the everyday life of the characters. The poles of life form rigid dichotomies of thought patterns and behavior, i.e. decent and indecent, acceptable and unacceptable, permissible and impermissible, etc. Conventions, restrictions and barriers separate the characters like cordons sanitaires. Each character has their own destiny and remembers their first love in their own way. The paradoxical essence of the novel is rooted in the contact of opposites, in the existential nature of life, which is the heart of the routine and the sublime at the same time. Dichotomies have no power over love, and real life eschews their dubious oppositions. This is where the path to Garcia Marquez’s magical realism begins, with everyday life becoming mystical. The ambivalence of everyday life and the symbolism inherent in it are key to unraveling the novel. Garcia Marquez deliberately creates a monotonous narrative so that love can shine through the layers of time. Love is not a passion, but the air of the novel, which the characters and the reader breathe, while everyday life is not a background, but a protagonist, which the alchemical actions of the author transform into eternity, opening unknown horizons of love at all times of life, even during the «cholera».

This article examines five Cuban phraseological units from a historical and sociolinguistic perspective. The study employs an interdisciplinary approach that combines linguistics with anthropology and history. Using mixed methodology, the authors analyze these expressions in terms of their form, etymology and their capacity to reflect the impact of colonialism, Afro-Cuban practices, folk legends and popular culture, while emphasizing their function as identity markers with varying degrees of regional and generational diffusion. Moreover, the study examines the role of these phraseological units in the vocabulary of contemporary speakers of various dialects of the Cuban national variety of Spanish, as well as speakers of other national varieties of the language. While the study is based on the tradition of Cuban phraseological research, it introduces innovations through the application of corpus linguistics tools and surveys conducted among speakers of different varieties of Spanish of different ages. The findings reveal several factors contributing to the vitality of phraseological units: proverbs with a well-established structure and rhyme are more persistent and have greater potential to be adopted in other national varieties of Spanish than context-dependent sayings connected to the local reality. The study also identifies generational differences in usage patterns associated with sociocultural changes. On balance, the research highlights the resilience and evolution of these expressions as integral components of Cuba’s linguistic and cultural heritage.

The fact that there were numerous religious orders and confraternities in Spain during the Golden Age is beyond doubt. It was religious orders that commissioned a great number of works of art in Spain in the 16^th‒17^th centuries. At the same time, the life of the orders themselves was subject to certain historical patterns that are yet to be fully explored. However, there is evidence that mendicant religious orders flourished in the decades following the Council of Trent, i.e. in the second half of the 16^th and the first half of the 17^th century. It was the Franciscan order, as well as those resembling it in their ascetic way of life Hieronymite and Cistercian orders, the Carthusians, Mercedarians and Carmelites that enjoyed the greatest popularity with the powers at that time. However, the comparative method of analysis shows that the second half of the 17^th century witnessed a certain decline in the artistic patronage of these orders, while the Jesuits, Dominicans, and Augustinians started to actively commission works of art. Consequently, the iconography of triumphs, which depicted saints popular with the Augustinians, Dominicans and Jesuits, became widespread, with the works of Claudio Coello, a distinguished painter of the second half of the 17^th century, being a testimony to that. At the same time, the question remains whether shifts in the dominance of orders contributed to a shift in their iconographic preferences or, conversely, iconographic preferences resulted in the dominance of certain orders.

The study aims to explore the uniqueness of Andean art, which is an amalgam of autochthonous and European elements. The formation of Latin American cultural identity is closely linked to the colonial era, an important period in the continent’s history. The artistic culture of the Old World — primarily Spanish, but also Dutch, Italian, and to a lesser extent that of other European countries — also had an impact on this process. The church of the Viceroyalty of Peru needed as much aesthetic splendor as possible to serve as an effective tool of Christianization. Various works of art were imported into the Andean region from Spain; talented painters and sculptors were recruited. Nonetheless, Christianization soon required the missionaries to train many local craftsmen, both those from the autochthonous peoples and mestizos. Their work gave colonial art a distinctive local style that incorporated certain pagan elements and inevitably reflected images of the surrounding flora and fauna, as well as the traditional lifestyle of the indigenous peoples. As a result, the art that was born was very idiosyncratic, completely different from what we see in Spain itself; even though that art expressed universal Christian ideas, Latin American people can rightly call it their own. The author’s conclusions draw on extensive material using the analytical and synthetic method based on the principle of historicism, as well as formal, stylistic and iconographic interpretation of the works.

The Nahua is one of largest indigenous ethnolinguistic entities of the cultural area of Mesoamerica, a center of origin and evolution of early states which is isolated from the Old World. Today they live predominantly in mountain areas of the Central Plateau and southern region of the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental in Mexico. Few Nahua groups currently inhabit the Central American countries of Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. This article examines the origin myths of three large Nahua ethnic groups of Central Mexico before the Spanish Conquest. These groups are the Aztecs or Mexica, one of the founders of the Triple Alliance confederation, frequently and erroneously called the «Aztec empire»; the Chalca, the inhabitants of the south-eastern part of the Basin of Mexico, and the Tlaxcaltecas, the residents of the present-day State of Tlaxcala in the eastern part of the Central Plateau. This approach permits conducting a comparative analysis of the narratives of ethnic groups that have common origin but different identity and cultural traditions, as well as to detect basic elements concerning Nahua migrations to Central Mexico, their relations with the autochthonous population and the foundation of their proper states and dynasties in the Late Postclassic Period, that is in the 13–16^th centuries. The aim of this article is the analysis of the ethnogenesis myths of the Aztecs, the Chalca and the Tlaxcaltecas as an ethnopolitical source, which allows to reconstruct the early stage of their history, the main sociopolitical institutions, their ethnic identity and notions about power and forms of its legitimization before the Spanish Conquest.

This article uses historical methodology to analyze the differences that the 7^th Congress of the Communist International revealed between its anti-fascist discourse and the actual relations within the labor movement. This dynamic was particularly evident in Spain between August 1935, when the new communist strategy was adopted, and February 1936, when the Popular Front won the elections. The Spanish case stemmed from a specific precedent, i.e. the anti-fascist workers’ uprising in Asturias in 1934, which allowed the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) to play a significant role at the 7^th Congress of the Communist International and be part of the Popular Front’s electoral coalition. The article’s main goal is to highlight the progress that the 7^th Congress of the Communist International made and the constraints it created in the relations between the PCE and the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE). The Spanish communists identified the relations with PSOE as a strategic priority. However, they were unable to shake off certain distrust of the PSOE. The PCE did find common ground with the socialists and initiated the formation of a united proletarian party, yet these efforts did not bear fruit. Nonetheless, this process offers a new historiographical insight into the underlying importance of the 7^th Congress of the Communist International: it should not be seen as a Machiavellian strategy to trigger a proletarian revolution, but as an effort to overcome the political and social isolation of the communist movement. Still, this came at the expense of encroaching on the socialist territory: the communists did not renounce their long-term goal of starting a proletarian revolution, but in the short and medium term they respected the liberal democratic model as it was established.

The presence of powers from other regions in the Western Hemisphere is one of the most relevant areas of contemporary Latin American studies. The collective monograph «Moscow, the Left and the Comintern in Latin America: Historical and Contemporary Outlook» is in line with that. It explores the development of political, economic and cultural relations between the USSR and Latin American states after World War II, as well as the transformation of left-wing political movements in the region in the early 21^st century. What makes the book unique is a plethora of issues considered and their presentation in the form of separate essays. The book, which consists of two parts, is based on many sources, including Russian and foreign documents and materials from archives, and contains a detailed review of the existing academic literature. In a broad panorama of the history of Latin American countries, the authors seek to determine the correlation between ideology and pragmatism in the Soviet foreign policy towards the region. Great emphasis is placed on the contacts of the Soviet party and state bodies with Latin American communist parties, their opponents and allies. The authors note that in contrast to the Comintern’s tactics, which relied on supporting armed uprisings of local communist parties in the first half of the 1930s, postwar Soviet leaders believed that military force could only be used in Latin America if a particular country had a favorable balance of socioeconomic and political factors. Analysts at the International Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union assessed the stability of the new left-wing governments, their «class nature» and their socioeconomic programs. Soviet leaders often chose to cooperate even with military dictatorships if they thought they could reap economic and geopolitical benefits. Parts of the monograph are devoted to reconsidering landmark events for Moscow, such as the Cuban Revolution, the rule of the Popular Unity coalition in Chile, and a series of military coups. The book includes interesting essays on U.S. policy in the Western Hemisphere, which was staunchly anti-communist. The second part of the book analyzes the state of left-wing movements in the region in the early 21^st century. The authors pose a question of whether or not there is currently a pink tide (i.e. turn to the left) in Latin America. What makes categorization even more challenging is the emergence of new parties and movements whose programs combine elements of social democracy, «new left» philosophy, ecological and human rights discourse. The authors use the term «pink tide 2.0» to describe this social and political dynamic. The book is an important contribution to Russian and global Latin American studies. The authors show that Russia, following the USSR, uses the emerging opportunities in its cooperation with the region without having unrealistic expectations.