Latin America and the Caribbean plays a special role in the modern world for a number of reasons. The common ground in this region is much stronger and more impactful than that in other regions of the world. Latin America and the Caribbean is also unique since it acts as a kind of a global laboratory of historical trial and error, where all types of historical existence and all the stages of socioeconomic evolution are present simultaneously. It absorbs different civilizational and cultural flows, processes them and provides a fruitful synthesis, which José Vasconcelos, Mexican philosopher and politician, dubbed mestizaje in the broad sense of the word. However, alongside the surprising dominance of common features, Latin America and the Caribbean has a number of significant divergences. The mechanics of mestizaje in the broad sense shows that there are several major components of historical synthesis in the region. The initial set of these components dating back to the Spanish conquest of America is the same for different countries, yet their combination and proportion is different. In addition, Latin America has a special dual identity, which is both national and regional. It is useful to analyze Latin America through the lens of a civilizational matrix, a special combination of factors contributing to civilizational maturation; this concept is close to the term archetype. From a civilizational point of view, there are several key archetypes in Latin America, and in the course of historical development, there has been an overlap of civilizational matrices in the region.

Andrey Kofman, a prominent Russian researcher in the field of humanities, can be described as a creative personality of the syncretic type, as he was both a researcher and an artist, in the broad sense of the word. A.F. Kofman used two fundamental intellectual strategies in his research, successfully applying them separately and in combination. He mastered the right hemisphere strategy, which seeks to study the object of the investigation as a whole, and the left hemisphere strategy, which implies «splitting» the object for analytical purposes. A.F. Kofman’s work can be used to study the particulars of the humanities in general, especially through the lens of M.M. Bakhtin’s concept. The importance of Kofman’s work goes far beyond the study of Latin American literature that he researched and explored in depth. Kofman’s most significant work centers around Latin America as a «frontier» civilization, which is a peculiar amalgam of unity and diversity. Diversity, which stems from inclusive discourse, is dominant, yet unity sui generis prevails, making this type of civilization uniquely systemic from a sociocultural point of view and different from other types. Andrey Kofman’s work confirms the idea that inclusive discourse defined the key features of the Latin American civilization, especially influencing how it took shape and what it identified with.

In the 16^th century, the Spanish University of Salamanca witnessed one of the most important intellectual events in European history, driven by the historical changes which, in turn, prompted the first wave of globalization that connected the world. It was the creation of the so-called School of Salamanca, a broad movement of philosophers, theologians, jurists, travelers and missionaries who reflected on the most pressing issues of the time: coexistence between different peoples, freedom, slavery, the right to property, just war and many others. Nowadays the globalization is different. In the 16^th century, Spain was a hegemon, and the defense of the Christian faith and its expansion was the main rationale behind territorial expansion. Today, the US is the hegemon of the Western world: it has imposed a unipolar order that legitimizes conflicts and clashes of greater or lesser intensity across the planet, supposedly in defense, not of the Christian faith, but of democracy and human rights. Therefore, it is important to explore some of the fundamental ideas of Francisco de Vitoria, founder of the School of Salamanca. He developed a theory on humanity and relations between nations based on his understanding of the qualities that every human being possesses by nature, which clashes with the currently dominant view of international relations, rooted in the Anglo-Saxon and Protestant perception of human nature, as opposed to the Hispanic and Catholic view. Hence, despite the distance that separates us from the world of Francisco de Vitoria and his theories, perhaps we should revisit the lessons of the University of Salamanca of the 16th century, which we seem to have forgotten.

The author sets forward a hypothesis of his own (though based on reliable sources) of the course of events that led to the subdual or, more exactly, to the loss of power of the Aztec Empire over what is now Mexico and the fall of the land under control by Spain. This version sustains that the campaign endeavored by Cortés against Tenochtitlan was only another episode of a whole series of wars waged by indigenous tribes against the Empire, wars that culminated in the victory of the former. The arrival of Cortés’ expeditionary force decided the outcome of the confrontation in which the Spaniards posed as the unifying link of a coalition of antiaztec forces that launched a full-scale offensive on the capital city of the Empire. Yet it was Malinche, a woman of noble Aztec descent, who became the actual mastermind of the Coalition. Nominally she acted as Cortés’ interpreter and made a superb performance, compensating for the captain’s crass ignorance of all things related to the New World. She made full use of her expert knowledge of the political situation, as well as of her freedom of expression (in absence of any outer control) in the interpretation of the negotiators’ standpoints, since no other participant could contrast her version of any statement with the original. The same woman also acted as the chief intelligence officer operating in the best interest of Cortés’ staff, as she was the only one who could talk with scouts and local residents piecing together all bits of information concerning the moves and plans of the enemy throughout the whole campaign. And it was her brilliant performance in both the above-mentioned roles that ensured the final victory of the Coalition.

This study focuses on slums, their structure and internal organization. The informal settlements in the South American countries of Uruguay, Argentina and Brazil have been chosen as the object of the study. The author aims to explore the phenomenon of slums, which are an integral part of most major cities in South America, from the point of view of the nature and historical circumstances of their emergence, the social aspects of their inhabitants’ life and their impact on the surrounding urban spaces. The evidence is derived from field research in Montevideo (Lezica and Villa Colón districts and the slum settlement of Santa Eugenia), an interview with a representative of the education sector who works with children and parents from disadvantaged neighborhoods, as well as government reports on the problems of slums and ongoing programs to support vulnerable populations in the countries studied. The research has led to the discovery of specific patterns of slum formation and of the impact of slum settlements on surrounding spaces, and has helped to document the profile of slum dwellers. The author concludes that the negative connotations associated with the concept of slums do not fully reflect this phenomenon, which has positive manifestations, including strong social ties and the potential for mutual assistance within the communities of local residents.

Multiculturalism is one of the main features of modern society, which has ethnic, gender, age, professional and other groups, whose values are represented in the language through vocabulary with evaluative semantics. Spanish society is the epitome of a multicultural society, and, like any other, has a complex set of values due to historical, socioeconomic, religious and other factors. The aim of the study is to analyse the formation and use of lexical units with evaluative connotations that represent ethnic, territorial and social groups in Spain through the prism of their correlation with basic (terminal) values. The largest number of evaluative lexemes is present among demonyms denoting the region or province where a person lives. Homeland (mi tierra) is of high value to Spaniards: it is associated with their roots, history, traditions, family and friends. It is important to note that the archetypal opposition of «friend vs. foe» is increasingly present in the regional context, even though the people are from the same country; hence, expressive words need to be differentiated in terms of auto- and heteronomination. While evaluative selfnames usually have positive connotations, glorifying a quality of the inhabitants of a certain area, heteronomination, as a rule, implies negative evaluation, as it names «the other», the people whose values are not shared or are not deemed important. Autonomination based on pride in one’s origin, roots and traditions (maños, gatos, guanches) serves as a tool for strengthening identity, while heteronomination (paleto, charnego, polaco) reveals social contradictions related to ethnic, cultural or class differences. It is particularly interesting to explore the connection between linguistic nomination and football culture, in which fan nicknames (culés, merengues, colchoneros) become symbols of regional pride and continuity of traditions. Thus, expressive nomination not only reflects but also shapes the cultural codes of Spanish society, acting as an important element of its linguistic worldview.

The COVID-19 pandemic, which officially began in the Peruvian capital on March 6, 2020, revealed an alarming situation: more than 3,000 people were living on the streets. Because of the emergency, the historical Plaza de Acho, one of the oldest bullrings in America and the world, became a temporary refuge for homeless people in the first months of the pandemic. In Home for Everyone four journalists documented stories of people who found themselves living in this emblematic place. The book, which combines profile features and a photo-essay, explores the correlation between the narration and presentation of these stories. Not only is this work informative, but it also prompts readers to reflect on the human condition, social structure, and collective memory in times of crisis. This is a chronicle of a difficult period, which also shows tensions and contradictions in an unequal society. By delving into the vicissitudes of the lives of its protagonists, it offers a sensitive yet profound outlook that defies indifference and reminds us of the value of human dignity in the face of adversity. In addition, this book is a transmitter of Peruvian culture, as it displays the language and culture of Lima’s streets and allows us to meet the little-known characters of its cultural landscape.

Review of the collection: Fernando Pessoa. Páginas de Pensamento Político (1910–1935). Organização, Introdução e Notas de António Quadros. – Lisboa: Clássica Editora, 2024. – 656 p. (In Portuguese)

                The first edition of articles reflecting the political views of Fernando Pessoa (1888– 1935), a famous Portuguese poet and philosopher, was published in Portugal. Hence, it would be interesting to analyze the worldview of this extraordinary person using his own method of «mystical realism». In his articles, written between 1910 and 1935, Fernando Pessoa expressed rather unusual ideas about the state, patriotism, liberty and democracy. He draws a clear distinction between the concepts of «the people» and «the mob» and makes original suggestions on how to reform the Portuguese society based on the national identity, rather than on foreign values. Moreover, Pessoa maintains that the Anglo-Saxon social order, which is present all over the world, has brought to power the «internal foreigners», i.e. liberals and republicans, who have become enemies of their own states. As controversial as the poet’s beliefs may be, one cannot help but agree with his idea that the world is constantly changing; therefore, our view of an individual and society in general should be flexible and subject to reconsideration as well. Even though Fernando Pessoa defended the need for a «meritocratic» system of governance, which he imagined to be a combination of people’s monarchy and new intellectual elite, in the end he failed to propose new ways to create such a system. Still, Fernando Pessoa’s political views expressed in the book are quite relevant today, since it is high time many traditional concepts in political sciences were revised.